Criteris lingüístics, bibliogràfics, d'estil i convencions

This part of the Llibre d’estil offers teaching staff advice about how to write a course guide, the English document that corresponds to the Catalan pla docent. It provides definitions of competences (competències), learning objectives (objectius d’aprenentatge) and learning outcomes (resultats d’aprenentatge), as well as practical advice on how to write and present these. It also offers guidance on how to write and present course content and useful vocabulary for the different sections in course guides.

Guidelines on writing course guides are also available in Catalan.

Defining the key terms

One of the most important parts of any course guide is the breakdown of what students will learn — or learn to do — into competences, learning objectives and learning outcomes. However, although the Bologna Process and its framework of qualifications for the European Higher Education Area called for “generic descriptors for each cycle based on learning outcomes and competences” (Communiqué of the Conference of European Ministers Responsible for Higher Education, Bergen, 19–20 May 2005, p. 2 ) and higher education systems across Europe have become more comparable, there are still discrepancies in the way different institutions and countries interpret and use terms such as “competences”, “competencies”, “learning objectives” and “learning outcomes”. The subsections below define these key terms and suggest how they can be most consistently used.

Competences

Defining the key terms

The concept of competences has become a focus within higher education since the initiation of the Bologna Process and the idea that education should lead to employability. In 2005, AQU Catalunya published an overview of competences in the context of course guides and the European Higher Education Area (see Annex 1 of the document Eines per a l’adaptació dels ensenyaments a l’EEES), highlighting the requirement for two types: competències genèriques and competències específiques. Since then, competences have become an established part of course guides, in which we often see categories such as those in the table below.

Catalan	Recommended English translation
competències generals	basic competences
competències generals, competències genèriques	general competences, generic competences
competències transversals	interdisciplinary competences, cross-disciplinary competences, cross-curricular competences
competències específiques	specific competences

Basic, general and interdisciplinary competences are expected across all programmes of the same level, and students must acquire them to graduate. However, it is quite likely that students will have developed these competences to some extent even before the beginning of the course. These types of competences describe wide-ranging abilities that are needed in a variety of situations. Some course guides provide definitions in the form of noun phrases.

Independent learning

The ability to choose the best approach to extending one’s knowledge and to learn new methods and technologies.
Teamwork

The ability to work in a team, whether as a member or as a leader, with the aim of contributing to projects pragmatically and responsibly and making commitments in view of the resources available.
Foreign language

Knowledge of a foreign language at an oral and written level that is consistent with graduates’ future needs.
Reasoning

The ability to think critically, logically and mathematically. A capacity for abstraction, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

In contrast, specific competences have a narrower scope, and are usually the direct result of taking a particular course, so students will probably not have developed them beforehand.

Finally, note that the adjective competent has two related nouns: competence and competency (in the plural, competences and competencies). Although they can be used with slightly different meanings, for the purposes of writing course guides they can be used as synonyms. UB course guides should use the term competences.

Learning objectives and learning outcomes

Defining the key terms

Learning objectives (objectius d’aprenentatge) and learning outcomes (resultats d’aprenentatge) are often used interchangeably because they both relate to teaching and learning in the classroom. Learning objectives state the learning that students should acquire. Learning outcomes state what a learner can do after completing a course of study. Because of the considerable overlap between the learning students should acquire and what they can do by the end of the course, course guides often only have one section on either objectives or outcomes, not both.

Writing competences

The most appropriate way to present competences is in the form of lists. When writing lists, bear in mind the following points.

Write a clear heading and/or a short introductory phrase.
Ensure that every item on the list is grammatically connected to the heading or the introductory phrase.
Give every item on the list the same grammatical structure (see Parallelism). Different lists may have different grammatical structures.
Be consistent with punctuation. If the phrase introducing the list is a complete sentence, close it with a colon and then give each item on the list sentence-style punctuation (initial capital letter and final full stop). If the phrase introducing the list is a sentence fragment, do not close it with a colon, lowercase the first letter of each item and finish each item with a comma or semicolon (except the last, which you should finish with a full stop).

Lists of competences can be expressed in several ways. The example below is a list of general competences expressed as noun phrases. Note that the gerund form (-ing) functions as a noun and therefore can be used in a list of nouns without breaking the parallelism.

General competences

Teamwork
Complex problem solving
Critical, logical and creative thought
Public speaking
Learning to learn
Report writing

Alternatively, you can list specific competences as infinitive phrases like this:

Students must

be able to explain how the economy works,
know how to use the basic tools for explaining business reality,
understand how the public sector operates.

or like this:

Students must be able to

explain how the economy works,
use the basic tools for explaining business reality,
describe how the public sector operates.

In the examples above, note that the introductory phrase conditions the verbs you wish to use. The verb can or be able to refers to an ability to do something and, therefore, can only be used with dynamic verbs like explain or describe (verbs that express actions), not stative verbs like understand or know (verbs that express states).

Writing learning objectives

The most appropriate way to present learning objectives is in the form of lists. When writing lists, bear in mind the following points.

Write a clear heading and/or a short introductory phrase.
Ensure that every item on the list is grammatically connected to the heading or the introductory phrase.
Give every item on the list the same grammatical structure (see Parallelism). Different lists may have different grammatical structures.
Be consistent with punctuation. If the phrase introducing the list is a complete sentence, close it with a colon and then give each item on the list sentence-style punctuation (initial capital letter and final full stop). If the phrase introducing the list is a sentence fragment, do not close it with a colon, lowercase the first letter of each item and finish each item with a comma or semicolon (except the last, which you should finish with a full stop).

Learning objectives are short statements that specify the learning that students should acquire during a particular subject. Because the focus is on the students, the statements should be phrased from their point of view. Generally speaking, you should express learning objectives in one of two ways: the heading “Learning objectives” followed by a bulleted list of bare infinitive phrases; or the heading “Learning objectives” and an introductory phrase (in the future tense) followed by a bulleted list of verb phrases.

Learning objectives

Describe how living beings are organized into cells.
Classify living beings into five kingdoms.
Explain the functions of biomolecules.

Learning objectives

By the end of the course, students will be able to

describe how living beings are organized into cells,
classify living beings into five kingdoms,
explain the functions of biomolecules.

Note that both lists are parallel: every item has the same grammatical structure. In the first case, the bare infinitives link back to the heading; in the second case, they link back to the introductory phrase. Note also that the introductory phrase makes the second list more explicitly student-centred.

Finally, when writing lists of learning objectives and learning outcomes (see below), it is important to use the infinitives of dynamic verbs (like explain, define, identify, analyse and recognize), which specify what students can do, rather than stative verbs (like know, be and have), which describe states. Note that the latter cannot be used with can or be able to, and are not readily measurable.

For more useful verbs for expressing learning objectives, see Appendix IV: Verbs expressing objectives and outcomes in course guides.

Writing learning outcomes

The most appropriate way to present learning outcomes is in the form of lists. When writing lists, bear in mind the following points.

Write a clear heading and/or a short introductory phrase.
Ensure that every item on the list is grammatically connected to the heading or the introductory phrase.
Give every item on the list the same grammatical structure (see Parallelism). Different lists may have different grammatical structures.
Be consistent with punctuation. If the phrase introducing the list is a complete sentence, close it with a colon and then give each item on the list sentence-style punctuation (initial capital letter and final full stop). If the phrase introducing the list is a sentence fragment, do not close it with a colon, lowercase the first letter of each item and finish each item with a comma or semicolon (except the last, which you should finish with a full stop).

Learning outcomes describe what students must be able to do after they have completed a course of study. As with learning objectives, lists of learning outcomes can be organized in more than one way. The lists below are both parallel. The first uses full sentences while the second begins each item in the list with a bare infinitive that connects back to a short introductory phrase.

Learning outcomes

Students are able to explain the main theories of biological and cognitive development.
Students can analyse the behaviour of adolescents in terms of the theories studied.
Students can create a positive learning environment suited to the needs of adolescents.

Learning outcomes

Students can

explain the main theories of biological and cognitive development,
analyse the behaviour of adolescents in terms of the theories studied,
create a positive learning environment suited to the needs of adolescents.

Note also that outcomes are expressed in the present tense because they focus on an observable result.

For a list of useful verbs for expressing learning outcomes, see Appendix IV: Verbs expressing objectives and outcomes in course guides.

Writing course content

This part of the University of Barcelona’s Llibre d’estil offers practical advice about how to write or translate the part of the course guide that is typically referred to as the content, contents or topics section. It is the part that organizes the course into topics (temes or blocs temàtics, in Catalan) and subdivides each topic into a list of sub-topics. Specifically, it offers advice about being as cohesive, concise and clear as possible.

Be cohesive

Writing course content

Be cohesive by maintaining the hierarchy between the title or heading of the topic (known as the topic head) and the list of contents. In other words, any information relevant to all the items in the list should be included in the head; do not allow any item to take precedence over the head in this respect. The following text shows what happens when you fail to do this: Part 2 relies on the Part 1 to explain its meaning (what ADR stands for), the phrase “The School’s” in Part 3 can only be fully understood by reading Part 2, and understanding what is meant by “the first and the last steps” in Part 5 depends on the information in Part 4.

Out-of-court settlements

1 Introduction to alternative dispute resolution (ADR)
2 ADR using Harvard Law School methods
3 The School’s collaborative negotiation techniques
4 The seven steps in the negotiation process
5 The importance of the first and last steps

Because all five parts refer to ADR, the list would be more cohesively written by putting “ADR” in the head and then making the language in each part independent from the language in all the others.

Out-of-court settlements and alternative dispute resolution (ADR)

1 Introduction to ADR
2 ADR using Harvard Law School methods
3 Harvard Law School’s collaborative negotiation techniques
4 The seven steps in the negotiation process
5 The importance of the first and last steps in negotiation

Be concise

Writing course content

Be concise by not repeating information contained in the head. For example, the list below contains several unnecessary words.

Neuropsychological evaluation

1 Introduction to evaluation
2 Attention disorders
3 Memory disorders
4 Child neuropsychological evaluation
5 Adult neuropsychological evaluation
6 Neuropsychological rehabilitation

By exploiting the information in the head, you can make the text more concise.

Neuropsychological evaluation

1 Introduction
2 Attention disorders
3 Memory disorders
4 Children
5 Adults
6 Rehabilitation

Be clear

Writing course content

Be clear by selecting exactly what information to give and how to give it. This is especially important when lists contain complex terminology that your text needs to frame as clearly as possible. In the example below there are unnecessary words in parts 1 and 1.1, as well as clumsy and confusing elements like the long phrases in parts 1.1 and 1.2 and the abbreviation “2D” placed right after the number in Part 2. Also, parts 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 all omit the names of the types of equation being exemplified, making these difficult to identify for readers unfamiliar with the subject.

All these problems could be solved by clearer writing at a general rather than a technical level and by not repeating information included in the head.

Heat transfer to nozzle and combustor walls

1 General considerations
1.1 Negative effects on performance and the design of hot-sides for heat fluxes in the 107–108 W/m² range
1.2 Convection versus radiation
2 Two-dimensional boundary layer equations to calculate convective heat transfer
2.1 Continuity equations
2.2 X-momentum equations
2.3 Y-momentum equations

Finally, cohesion, concision and clarity can also be gained by joining phrases. When you translate compound titles that contain a very long first phrase, for example, consider reducing the structure to a single phrase. For instance, titles such as

Psicologia del treball i de les organitzacions: marc teòric
Els drets i deures de la persona treballadora: aspectes generals
Sistemes de planificació i gestió dels recursos humans: una perspectiva psicològica

might be effectively rendered as

A theoretical framework for industrial and organizational psychology
General aspects of employees' rights and responsibilities
A psychological approach to human resource planning and management systems

This can also be appropriate for titles with two phrases of a similar length.

La jurisdicció social: principis bàsics del procés social

Basic principles of labour court procedure

Useful vocabulary

Types of assessment

Make clear and specific reference to the types of assessment students receive for the subject. Below is a list of terms that are useful when discussing assessment.

Catalan	Recommended English translation
avaluació contínua	continuous assessment
avaluació en línia	online assessment
avaluació final	final assessment
avaluació formativa	formative assessment
avaluació sumatòria	summative assessment
examen escrit	written exam
examen oral	oral exam
examen parcial	mid-term exam, mid-semester exam
prova d’opció múltiple	multiple-choice test

The grading system

In universities in the Vives Network of Universities, Catalan academic grades are translated in the following way.

Catalan	Recommended English translation
aprovat	pass
apte	pass (pass/fail grading system)
excel·lent	excellent
matrícula d'honor	distinction
no apte	fail (pass/fail grading system)
no presentat	absent
notable	good
suspens	fail
pendent	pending

Uses of mark and grade

The terms mark and grade are often used interchangeably, but note the following differences between them.

Mark	Grade
UK English	US English
Numerical	Alphabetical
Individual assessment task	Overall assessment of a subject

Because of the third difference above, use “grading system” for the sistema de qualificació section of a course guide.

Types of class

The following terms may be useful when discussing types of class.

Catalan	Recommended English translation
classe magistral, classe teòrica	lecture
pràctica de laboratori	laboratory practical
pràctica en empresa	internship, work placement
tutoria	tutorial
seminari	seminar
classe presencial	face-to-face class, on-campus class, on-site class
classe en línea, classe virtual	online class, virtual class
classe híbrida	hybrid class
classe semipresencial	blended class

ECTS credits

The acronym ECTS stands for “European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System”. So, when indicating the number of credits awarded to a particular subject, be sure to use the word credits after the phrase ECTS.

Therefore, not

Basque Literature (10 ECTS)

but

Basque Literature (10 ECTS credits)

Use of the present tense

In any section where you describe the content of the course or of one of its topics in more general detail, use the present simple.

In this course, students write a placement report using the templates and guidelines provided by the Faculty.

In this part of the course, students use the software package SPSS Statistics for Windows to perform interactive or batched statistical analysis. Specifically, they learn to use the SPSS ‘Transform’ command to compute new variables from existing ones.

Use of the student or students

Generally speaking, use the plural students.

Students should buy all the books on the reading list by the second week of classes.

In the second semester, students will be required to submit a ten-page report.

However, when you want to emphasize the individual nature of the learning, such as in course guides that describe the final project, use the singular.

Each student will be asked to prepare an outline of the second assignment, which must be presented to the rest of the class.

In this case, if you need to use pronouns, use they, them and their. This is more concise and inclusive than using constructions such as he or she, him or her or his or her.

Therefore, not

The student will present his or her assignment to the rest of the class. When he or she has finished, the rest of the class will have twenty minutes to ask him or her questions about anything that seemed unclear.

but

The student will present their assignment to the rest of the class. When they have finished, the rest of the class will have twenty minutes to ask them questions about anything that seemed unclear.

Stative and dynamic verbs

When you describe the learning objectives and learning outcomes of your course use dynamic verbs rather than stative verbs: in other words, use verbs that describe the objective in question as a specific, observable and therefore measurable action, like explain, classify, define, analyse or discuss, rather than as a general state or condition that cannot be easily evaluated, like know, understand, have experience of or be familiar with.

Consider the following list.

Objectius d’aprenentatge

Comprendre el sistema que regula la seguretat pública.
Familiaritzar-se amb les bones pràctiques de màrqueting.
Conèixer la història de l’anàlisi biològica.

The literal translation of the list would be

Learning objectives

Understand the system regulating public safety.
Become familiar with good practices in marketing.
Know the history of biological analysis.

However, these verbs are neither measurable nor dynamic, so a more appropriate and grammatically correct translation would be

Learning objectives

Explain the system regulating public safety.
Identify good practices in marketing.
Discuss the history of biological analysis.

The above is particularly true of the Catalan verb conèixer, often used in lists of learning objectives. To translate this verb, do not use the stative verb know, which is neither measurable nor dynamic and cannot combine grammatically with the verbs can or be able to. Instead, use a dynamic verb. The table below offers some common-sense options.

Catalan	Recommended English translation
Conèixer el procediment legislatiu així com la resta d’instruments normatius...	Identify the legislative procedures and legal instruments...
Conèixer la importància de l’organització administrativa...	Explain the importance of administrative organization...
Conèixer la importància del rol del govern multinivell de la UE...	Discuss the role played by the European Union’s system of multi-level government...
Conèixer el rol de l’Administració i del poder judicial com a actors...	Describe how the government and legal authorities enact the law...
Conèixer els factors de l’estructura d’oportunitat política...	List the factors in political opportunity structure…

For a more complete list, see Appendix IV: Verbs expressing objectives and outcomes in course guides.

Percentages